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Biofilms are clusters of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and other microbes, that adhere to surfaces and produce a protective matrix made up of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). These biofilms can form on almost any surface—ranging from medical devices, pipes, and industrial machinery to even natural environments like rivers and oceans. In many cases, biofilms pose significant challenges in healthcare, industry, and environmental management due to their resilience agains …